The Apollo Program , also known as Project Apollo , is the third United States human spaceflight program conducted by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which completed the first human landing on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. First conceived during the reign of Dwight D. Eisenhower as a three-person spacecraft to follow the Mercury Project of one person who placed the first Americans in space, Apollo was then dedicated to President John F. Kennedy national The goal of "a man's landing on the Moon and return it safely to Earth "in the late 1960s, which he proposed in a speech to Congress on May 25, 1961.
Kennedy's goal was achieved on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins remained in the moon's orbit in the Command/Service Module (CSM), and the three landed safely on Earth on July 24th. The next five Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last one in December 1972. In these six spaces, twelve men walked on the Moon.
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It reached the goal of a manned lunar landing, despite the large decline of the Apollo 1 cabin fire of 1 in 1967 that killed all crew during the prelaunch test. After the first landing, enough aircraft hardware is left for the next nine landing with an extended geological exploration plan and lunar astrophysics. Budget cuts force these three cancellations. Five of the remaining six missions reached a successful landing, but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by the explosion of the oxygen tank during transit to the Moon, which destroyed the ability of the Service Module to provide electricity, paralyze CSM propulsion and life support systems. The crew returned to Earth safely using the Lunar Module as a "lifeboat" for these functions. Apollo uses the Saturn family rocket as a launch vehicle, also used for the Apollo Application Program, which consists of Skylab, a space station that supports three manned missions in 1973-74, and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a joint US-Soviet Union orbit Union mission Earth in 1975.
Apollo establishes several important milestones in human space. It stands alone in sending manned missions outside the low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 is the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marks the sixth landing of the Moon and the ninth manned mission outside the low Earth orbit. The program returns 842 liters (382 kg) of moon and soil rocks to Earth, contributing greatly to understanding the composition of the Moon and its geological history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's next human space capability, and funded the development of Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurs advances in many areas of technology related to rocket and manned space, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.
Video Apollo program
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The Apollo program was conceptualized during the Eisenhower administration in the early 1960s, as a follow up of the Mercury Project. While Mercury's capsule can only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbit mission, Apollo will carry three astronauts. Possible missions include hauling crews into space stations, circular flights, and manned moon landings. The program is named after the Greek god, music, and sun god by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that "I named the spacecraft the way I call my baby." Silverstein chose the name at home one night, in the early 1960s, because he felt "Apollo drove his chariot across the Sun according to the large scale of the proposed program."
Aerospace feasibility study
In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives on a series of Group Duty Group conferences. Initial specifications are laid out for spacecraft with module modules separate from the command modules (piloting and re-entry cabins), and propulsion and equipment modules On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric, and Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA is studying the design of its own spacecraft led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a measuring tool for assessing and monitoring three industrial designs.
Political pressures build
In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised America's superiority over the Soviet Union in the field of space exploration and missile defense. Until the 1960 election, Kennedy had spoken out against the "missile gap" that he and many other senators felt had formed between the Soviets and themselves due to President Eisenhower's inaction. Beyond military power, Kennedy uses aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first period." Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately make a decision about the status of the Apollo program as soon as he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was postponed by the massive financial commitments required by manned moon landings. When the newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported the acceleration of NASA's big propulsion program but postponed a decision on a wider issue.
On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing America's fear of being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US House of Science and Astronautics Committee one day after the Gagarin flight, many congressmen expressed their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would overtake. Kennedy was cautious in response to the news, refusing to make a commitment to America's response to the Soviets.
On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to see the status of the US space program, and into a program that could offer NASA a chance to catch up. Johnson responded about a week later, concluding that "we do not make the maximum effort or achieve the necessary results if the country is to achieve a leadership position." His memo concludes that the manned moon landing is far enough in the future that it is likely that the United States will achieve it first.
On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US manned spacecraft Freedom 7 , Kennedy proposed a manned Moon landfall in a Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs:
It is now time to take a longer step - time for a great new American company - it's time for this nation to take a clear, leading role in the achievement of outer space, which in many ways holds the key to our future on Earth.
... I believe that this nation must commit to reach the goal, before this decade out, to land a man on the Moon and return it safely to Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more importantly in long-haul space exploration; and nothing will be so difficult or expensive to complete. Full text
Maps Apollo program
NASA Expansion
At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American flew in space - less than a month earlier - and NASA has not yet sent astronauts into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubt whether Kennedy's ambitious goals can be met. In 1963, Kennedy even almost agreed to the joint mission of US-USSR Moon, to eliminate duplication of efforts.
With the clear purpose of a manned landing that replaced the more vague objectives of the space station and circular flight, NASA decided that, to make progress quickly, NASA would dispose of the design of the Convair, GE, and Martin feasibility study, and proceed with the Faget module design command/service. The mission module is determined to be useful only as an additional space, and is therefore considered unnecessary. They used the Faget design as a specification for another competition for a spacecraft procurement bid in October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was announced that North American Aviation had won the contract, although the offer was not judged as good as Martin's. Webb, Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it because of North America's longer relationship with NASA and its predecessors.
Men's landing on the Moon at the end of 1969 required the most sudden explosion of technological creativity, and the largest resource commitment ($ 25 billion, $ 107 billion dollars 2016) ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employs 400,000 people and requires the support of more than 20,000 industrial and university companies.
On July 1, 1960, NASA founded the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama. MSFC designed the Saturn heavyweight launch vehicle, which is required for Apollo.
Manned Space Center
It became clear that managing the Apollo program would surpass the ability of the Space Task Group Robert R. Gilruth, who has directed the nation's manned space program from the NASA Langley Research Center. So Gilruth was authorized to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was selected in Houston, Texas, on land donated by Rice University, and Webb Administrator announced the conversion on September 19, 1961. It is also clear NASA will soon surpass its practice of controlling missions from the launch facility of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. in Florida, so the new Mission Control Center will be included in the MSC.
In September 1962, when two astronauts of the Mercury Project had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rent space in Houston, and the construction of the MSC facility was underway, Kennedy visited Rice to repeat his challenge in a famous speech:
But why, some say, Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, flew the Atlantic?...
We chose to go to the Moon. We chose to go to the Moon in this decade and do other things, not because they are easy, but because they are difficult; because that purpose will serve to regulate and measure the best of our energy and skill; because the challenge is the one we want to receive, which we do not want to delay, and which we want to win.... The full text
The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death in 1973.
Launch Operation Center
It also became clear that Apollo would surpass the Canaveral launch facility in Florida. Two new launch complexes have been built for Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But larger facilities will be needed for the giant rocket needed for the manned moon mission, so land acquisition began in July 1961 for the Launch Operation Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral on Merritt Island. The design, development and construction of the center is done by Kurt H. Debus, a member of the V-2 rocket engineering team. Wernher von Braun. Debus was named the first Director of the LOC. Construction began in November 1962. After Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on 29 November 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.
The LOC includes a Launch Complex 39, Launch Control Center and Verbal Building (VAB) of 130 million cubic feet (3.7 million cubic meters) where space vehicles (launch vehicles and spacecraft) will be assembled on the Mobile Launcher Platform and then moved by the transporter to one of several launch pads. Although at least there were three planned cushions, only two were designated A and B, which completed in October 1965. The LOC also included Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) where the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were originally received before being mated to their launch. vehicle. The Apollo spacecraft can be tested in two vacuum chambers that can simulate atmospheric pressure at an altitude of up to 250,000 feet (76 km), which is virtually vacuum.
Organization
Webb administrator realized that to keep Apollo's costs under control, he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited Dr. George E. Mueller for high-management jobs. Mueller accepts, on condition that he has a voice in the reorganization of NASA needed to manage Apollo effectively. Webb then worked with the Associate Administrator (later Deputy Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Space Flight Office (OMSF). On July 23, 1963, Webb announced the appointment of Mueller as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to replace Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes in his September 1 effective retirement. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Marshall Space Shuttle Center (Gilruth) Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun) and the Launch Operation Center (Debus) were reported effectively to Mueller.
Based on his industry experience of the Air Force missile project, Mueller realized that some capable managers were to be found among high-ranking officers in the United States Air Force, so he got Webb's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who earned a reputation as his own. effective management of the Minuteman program, as the controller of the OMSF program. Phillips high-ranking officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to lend Phillips to NASA, along with the officers under him, on condition that Phillips would become the Program Director of Apollo. Mueller agreed, and Phillips manages Apollo from January 1964, until it reached the first manned landfall in July 1969, after which he returned to the Air Force's duty.
Choose mission mode
After Kennedy sets goals, Apollo mission planners are faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that can fill them while minimizing risks to human life, costs, and demands on astronaut technology and skills. Four possible mission modes are considered:
- Live Ascent: The spacecraft will be launched as a unit and travel directly to the Moon and land. It will return, leaving the stage of his landing on the Moon. This design will require the development of a very powerful Nova launch vehicle.
- Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): The dual rocket launch (up to 15 in some plans) will bring part of the spacecraft and Direct Direct booster for translunar (TLI) injection. It will be assembled into one spacecraft in Earth orbit.
- Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): A single Saturn V can launch a spacecraft consisting of an aircraft carrier that will remain in orbit on the Moon, while a smaller two-stage landing will carry two astronauts to the surface, back to the dock by aircraft carrier, and then discarded. Landing only a small part of the spacecraft on the Moon and returning the smaller part to the lunar orbit minimizes the total mass to be launched from Earth.
- Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft will be launched in a row. The first, the automatic vehicle carrying propellant to return to Earth, will land on the Moon, which will be followed some time later by a manned vehicle. Propellants must be transferred from automatic vehicles to manned vehicles.
In early 1961, direct ascent was generally a profitable mission mode at NASA. Many engineers worry about rendezvous - let alone docking - nothing that has been tried even in Earth orbit, will be very difficult in lunar orbit. People who disagree include John Houbolt at Langley Research Center stressing the important weight reduction offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for LOR recognition as a practical and practical choice. Through the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "rather as a voice in the wilderness," Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be ignored in the study of the question.
The creation of an ad hoc committee formed by special technical assistants Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program, representing a turning point in the decision NASA's mission mode. The committee recognizes that the chosen mode is an essential part of the launch vehicle option, and is recommended to support the hybrid EOR-LOR mode. His consideration of the LOR - as well as Houbolt's endless work - plays an important role in publicizing the capabilities of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Space Center began to support the LOR, including the new vice-director of the Space Aeronautics Office, Joseph Shea, who won the LOR. Engineers at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), who lost much of the decision, took longer to be convinced of the benefits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun on a briefing on 7 June 1962.
But even after NASA reached an internal agreement, it was far from smooth. Kennedy's science adviser Jerome Wiesner, who has expressed his opposition to the Kennedy manned spacecraft before the President took office, has opposed the decision to land a man on the Moon, hire Golovin, who has left NASA, to lead his own "Space Transfers Panel". ", as if to monitor, but actually to guess NASA's decision at the launch of Saturn V and LOR vehicles by forcing Shea, Seaman, and even Webb to defend themselves, delayed the official announcement to the press on July 11, 1962, and forced Webb still defend the decision as "tentative".
Wiesner continued to press, even making a public dispute over the two-day September visit by the President to the Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner exclaimed, "No, that's not good" in front of the press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped up and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended the argument by stating that the issue was "still to be revisited". Webb stands firm, and issues requests for proposals to the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) contractor. Wiesner finally surrendered, unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all at Kennedy's office, due to the President's involvement with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the election of Grumman as a LEM contractor in November 1962.
Space historian James Hansen concludes that:
Without NASA's adoption of this stubborn minority opinion in 1962, the United States might still reach the Moon, but it almost certainly would not have been achieved by the late 1960s, the date of President Kennedy's target.
The LOR method has the advantage of allowing a landing aircraft to be used as a "lifeboat" in case of a failure of a command ship. Some documents prove this theory has been discussed before and after the method is selected. The MSC study of 1964 concluded, "LM [as a lifeboat]... was finally dropped, as there was not a single identifiable CSM failure that would prohibit the use of SPS." Ironically, such failure occurred in Apollo 13 when the explosion of the oxygen tank left CSM without electricity. The Lunar module provides power, power, and life support to make the crew home safely.
Spacecraft
Early Apollo design The Faget uses a cone-shaped command module, powered by one of several service modules that provide propulsion and electric power, of exact size for space station missions, cislunar and lunar missions. After the landing of the Kennedy Moon becomes official, the detailed design starts from Command/Service Module (CSM) where the crew will spend all the direct climbing missions and take off from the lunar surface for the trip back, after landing softly with the module bigger landing booster. The last option of the lunar orbit rendering changed the role of CSM into a translunar ferry used to transport the crew, along with the new spacecraft, the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), which was then abbreviated to Lunar Module , LM) that will take two people to the surface of the moon and return them to CSM.
Command/Services Module
The Command Module (CM) is a cone-shaped cabin crew, designed to carry three astronauts from the launch into the moon's orbit and back to the Earth's land landing. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes because the program evolved from early Apollo study designs. The outside is covered with an ablative heat shield, and has its own reaction control engine (RCS) to control its attitude and direct its atmospheric inlet. The parachute was brought in to slow its decline to fall. The module is 11.42 feet (3.48 m) tall, 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter, and weighs about 12,250 pounds (5,560 kg).
The Cadindris Service Module (SM) supports the Command Module, with propulsion service engine and RCS with propellant, and fuel cell power system system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants. A high-gain S-band antenna is used for long distance communications on the moon flight. On an extended month mission, a package of orbital scientific instruments is performed. The Service Module is removed right before re-entry. This module is 24.6 feet (7.5 m) long and 12.83 feet (3.91 m) long. The early-month flight version weighed about 51,300 pounds (23,300 kg) completely fueled, while the newer version designed to carry the lunar orbit scientific instrument pack weighs just over 54,000 pounds (24,000 kg).
North American Aviation won a contract to build CSM, as well as the second phase of the launch of the Saturn V vehicle for NASA. Since the CSM design begins earlier before the lunar orbit rendezvous election, the service propulsion engine is sized to lift the CSM of the Moon, and thus too large to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight. Also, there is no provision for docking with Lunar Module. The study of the definition of a 1964 program concluded that the initial design should proceed as Block I which would be used for initial testing, while Block II, the actual moon spacecraft, would incorporate docking equipment and utilize the lessons learned in the development of Block I.
Lunar Module
The Lunar Module (LM) is designed to descend from the moon's orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and bring them back into orbit to meet with the Command Module. Not designed to fly through Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, the aircraft is fully designed with no aerodynamic considerations, and is a very light construction. It consists of separate landing and climbing stages, each with its own machine. The hereditary stage contains storage for hereditary propellants, surface consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The climbing stage contains crew cabins, climbing drivers, and reaction control systems. The initial LM model weighed approximately 33,300 pounds (15,100 kg), and the permitted surface remained for about 34 hours. The Extended Lunar Module weighs more than 36,200 pounds (16,400 kg), and allows the surface to stay longer than 3 days. The contract for the design and construction of the Lunar Module was granted to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the project was supervised by Thomas J. Kelly.
Launch vehicle
Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers began working on plans for a huge launch vehicle, the Saturn series, and the larger Nova series. In the midst of this plan, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA, and became Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center. The initial plan of direct ascent to sending a three-person Apollo Command/Service Module directly to the surface of the moon, on a large-armed rocket stage, will require Nova class launchers, with a monthly charge capability of over 180,000 pounds (82,000 Ã, kg). The June 11, 1962 decision to use the orbital rendering of the moon allowed Saturn V to replace Nova, and the MSFC went on to develop a Saturn rocket family for Apollo.
Little Joe II
Since Apollo, like Mercury, will require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively small rocket is required for the flight qualification testing of this system. A larger size of Little Joe's NAA would be needed, so Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics/Convair. After the August 1963 qualifying flight test, four LES (A-001 to 004) flight tests were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966.
Saturn I
Because Apollo, like Mercury, uses more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA uses the launch-space launch vehicle spacecraft series: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (compare Mercury) -Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them in sequence as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time the manned flight started.
Saturn I, the first US heavyweight launch vehicle, was originally planned to launch a partially equipped CSM in a low Earth orbit test. The first stage of S-I burns RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in eight clustered Rocketdyne H-1 engines, to generate a thrust of 1,500,000 pounds (6,670 kN). The second phase of S-IV uses six Pratt & amps of liquid hydrogen fuel. Whitney RL-10 engine with a thrust force of 90,000 pounds (400 kN). The planned third phase of the Centaur (S-V) with two RL-10 engines never flies in Saturn I.
The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from the LC-34, with only the first live stage, carrying the top stage of a water-filled doll. The first flight with live broadcast S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches of CSM boilerplate (designated US-101 via AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The latter three subsequently supported the Apollo program by also carrying the Pegasus satellite, which verified the security of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity impact of micrometeorite.
In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four manned CSM flights in Saturn I from late 1965 to 1966, along with Project Gemini. The 22,500 pound (10,200 kg) charge capacity will severely limit the systems that can be entered, so a decision was made in October 1963 to use upgraded IB Saturn for all manned Earth orbit flights.
Saturn IB
Saturn IB is an upgraded version of Saturn I. The first stage of S-IB increases the thrust to 1,600,000 pound-force (7,120 kN) by raising the H-1 engine. The second phase replaces the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 hydrogen fuel combustion engine with LOX, to generate 200,000 pounds (890 kN). A reusable version of S-IVB is used as the third stage of Saturn V. Saturn IB may send more than 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) into low Earth orbit, sufficient for partially triggered CSM or LM. Saturn IB launch vehicle and designated flight with AS-200 serial number, "US" shows "Apollo Saturn" and "2" indicates the second member of the Saturn rocket family.
Saturn V
Saturn V launch vehicle and designated flight with the AS-500 serial number, "AS" indicates "Apollo Saturn" and "5" indicates Saturn V. The three-stage Saturn V is designed to send fully CSM and LM fuel for moon. It was 33 feet (10.1 m) in diameter and stood 363 feet (110.6 m) tall with its 96,800 pound lunar payload (43,900 kg). Its capability increased to 103,600 pounds (47,000 kg) for landing in the next month. The first stage of S-IC burns RP-1/LOX for a measuring power of 7,500,000 pound-force (33,400 kN), which is increased to 7,610,000 pound-force (33,900 kN). The second and third stages burn liquid hydrogen, and the third stage is a modified version of S-IVB, with thrust rising to 230,000 pound-force (1,020 kN) and the ability to revive the engine for translunar injection once it reaches the parking orbit.
Astronaut
The director of NASA Flight Crew Operations during the Apollo program was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original median Mercury Seven astronauts in September 1962 for heart murmurs. Slayton is responsible for making all the crew work of Gemini and Apollo.
Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. Twenty-four of this left Earth's orbit and fly around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 run on the surface of the Moon, although none of them returned after landing once. One moonwalker is a trained geologist. Of 32, Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee were killed in a ground test in preparation for the Apollo 1 mission.
Apollo's astronauts were selected from Mercury Project veterans and Gemini, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions are ordered by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crew on all development flights (except CSM orbit flights Earth orbit) via the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12, including at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Dr Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first NASA astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on his last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in the moon's geological training of all the Apollo landing crew.
NASA gave these 32 astronauts the highest award, the Distinguished Service Medal, awarded for "privileged service, ability, or courage", and "personal contributions represent substantial progress to NASA's mission". Medals were given posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969, then to the crew of all missions from Apollo 8 and beyond. The crew that flew the first mission of Earth Apollo 7 orbit, Walter M. Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, were awarded the fewer NASA Extraordinary Service Medal, due to disciplinary problems with Flight Director orders during their flights. The NASA administrator in October 2008, decided to give them the Distinguished Service Medal, nowadays posthumously to Schirra and Eisele.
crescent mission profile
Misi pendaratan lunar nominal yang direncanakan berlangsung sebagai berikut:
Variasi profil
- Dimulai dengan Apollo 13, penyisipan orbit menurun harus dilakukan menggunakan mesin Modul Layanan daripada mesin LM, untuk memungkinkan cadangan bahan bakar yang lebih besar untuk pendaratan. Ini sebenarnya dilakukan untuk pertama kalinya di Apollo 14, karena misi Apollo 13 dibatalkan sebelum mendarat.
- Tiga misi bulan pertama (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, dan Apollo 11) menggunakan lintasan kembali gratis, menjaga jalur penerbangan coplanar dengan orbit lunar, yang akan memungkinkan kembalinya Bumi jika mesin SM gagal membuat penyisipan lunar orbit. Kondisi pencahayaan situs pendaratan pada misi selanjutnya mendiktekan perubahan bidang orbit bulan, yang mengharuskan kursus mengubah manuver segera setelah TLI, dan menghapus opsi pengembalian-gratis.
- Setelah Apollo 12 menempatkan yang kedua dari beberapa seismometer di Bulan, S-IVB pada misi selanjutnya dengan sengaja jatuh di Bulan bukannya dikirim ke orbit matahari, sebagai eksperimen seismik aktif untuk menginduksi getaran di Bulan./li>
- Sebagai eksperimen seismik aktif lainnya, tahap pendakian LM yang disingkirkan di Apollo 12 dan misi-misi berikutnya sengaja dihancurkan di Bulan di lokasi yang diketahui. Satu-satunya pengecualian untuk ini adalah Apollo 13 LM yang terbakar di atmosfer Bumi, dan Apollo 16, di mana hilangnya kontrol sikap setelah jettison dicegah membuat dampak yang ditargetkan.
Riwayat perkembangan
Tes penerbangan tanpa awak
Two Blocks of CSM were launched from LC-34 on a suborbital flight in 1966 with IB Saturn. The first, AS-201 was launched on 26 February, reaching a height of 265.7 nautical miles (492.1 km) and slipping down 4.577 nautical miles (8,477 km) down in the Atlantic Ocean. The second, the US-202 on August 25, reached 617.1 nautical miles (1,142.9 km) altitude and recovered 13,900 nautical miles (25,700 km) down in the Pacific Ocean. This flight validates the Service Module engine and the Commando Module heat shield.
The third IB Saturn test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, goes into orbit to support the design of the S-IVB upper-stage restart capability required for Saturn V. It carries the nosecone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its charge is liquid hydrogen fuel not burning, the behavior of engineers as measured by temperature and pressure sensors, and TV cameras. The flight occurred on July 5, before the US-202, which was delayed due to problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready to fly.
Preparation for manned flights
Two planned CSM Block I missions are planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The position of the Blok I crew is entitled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot will assume the navigation task, while the Pilot will function as a system engineer. The astronauts will use a modified version of Gemini space clothing.
After the US-206 unmanned LM test flight, the crew will fly the first CSM and LM Block II in a double mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft will be launched on separate Saturn IBs). The position of the Block II crew is entitled the Commander Module Command Command (CDR) (CMP) and the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP). The astronauts will start wearing the new Apollo A6L outfit, designed to accommodate the lunar extravehicular activity (EVA). Traditional visor helmets are replaced with clear "fishbowl" types for greater visibility, and the moon's EVA suit will include cold-water clothing.
Deke Slayton, the earthly astronaut Mercury who became Director of Flight Crew Operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele moved her shoulders twice on a training plane without weight KC135, and had to undergo surgery on 27 January. Slayton replaced it with Chaffee. NASA announced the final crew vote for the US-204 on March 21, 1966, with a backup crew consisting of veterans veterini James McDivitt and David Scott, with rookie Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally Schirra, Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the main crew for the US-205.
In December 1966, the US-205 mission was canceled, as CSM validation will be completed on the first 14-day flight, and the US-205 will be devoted to space experiments and not contributing new engineering knowledge of the spacecraft. Saturn's IB is allocated to a double mission, now redesigned US-205/208 or US-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the main US-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were transferred as crew Apollo 1 backup.
Program delay
Spacecraft for the US-202 and AS-204 missions sent by North American Flight to Kennedy Space Center with a long list of equipment issues that must be fixed before the flight; this delay led to the launch of the US-202 slipping behind the US-203, and eliminates the hope of the first manned mission probably ready to be launched as soon as November 1966, along with the last Gemini mission. Finally the date of the planned US-204 flight was pushed until 21 February 1967.
The North American flight was the prime contractor not only for Apollo CSM, but for the second phase of the Saturn V S-II as well, and delay at this stage pushed the unmanned US-501 Saturn V from late 1966 to November 1967. (US- 501 should use spacer spacer dummy on stage place.)
The problem with North America was severe enough at the end of 1965 to cause Aviation Space Administration George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to lead a "tiger team" to investigate North American issues and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a 19 December letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a letter written out loud by Mueller, and also presented the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans. Meanwhile, Grumman also faced problems with the Lunar Module, dispelling that hope would be ready for a manned flight in 1967, shortly after the first manned CSM flight.
Apollo 1 Fire
Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1 as the focus of motivation on the first manned flight. They trained and tested their spacecraft in North America, and in altitude rooms at the Kennedy Space Center. The "plug-out" test is planned for January, which will simulate a launch countdown on the LC-34 with the transfer of the spacecraft from the pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this will be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test that is closer to the February 21 launch, with both a spacecraft and a launch of a fueled vehicle.
The plug-out test started on the morning of January 27, 1967, and soon the problem was over. First of all, the crew saw a strange odor in their spaceshare, which delayed the closing of the hatch. Then, communication problems frustrate the astronauts and force in simulated countdown. During this detention, an electric fire starts in the cabin, and spreads rapidly in high pressure, 100% atmospheric oxygen. The pressure rises high enough from the fire that destroys the inner wall of the cabin, allowing fires to erupt into the pad area and frustrating attempts to save the crew. The astronauts are short of breath before the hatch can be opened.
NASA soon held an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for accidents is complex, the review board concludes that "the shortcomings are in the design of the Command Module, workmanship and quality control." At the urging of NASA Webb Administrator, North America removed Harrison Storms as program manager of the Command Module. Webb also reassigned Apollo Space Program Manager (ASPO), Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with George Low.
To correct the cause of the fire, changes were made to the spacecraft and Block II operational procedures, the most important being the use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture in place of pure oxygen before and during launch, and combustible combustible removals and space suits. ingredients. Block II design has requested replacement of the plug-type block hold hatch with an open exit door. NASA stopped the manned Block I program, using the Blok I spacecraft only for unmanned Saturn V flights. Crew members will also exclusively use the modified and fire resistant A7L Block II block space, and will be determined by the title of Block II, regardless of whether the LM is on the flight or not.
Unmanned Saturn V and LM Test
On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo missile numbering scheme, using sequence numbers for all flights, manned or unmanned. The sequence will begin with Apollo 4 to cover the first three unmanned flights while retiring the appointment of 1 Apollo in honor of the crew, as their widow wishes.
In September 1967, Mueller agreed on the order of the type of mission that must be successfully completed to reach a manned lunar landing. Each step must be successfully completed before the next one can be done, and it is not known how much effort each mission takes; therefore letters are used instead of numbers. A A mission is an unmanned Saturn V validation; B is an unmanned LM validation using IB Saturn; C is a CSM Earth orbit validation beginning with using Saturn IB; D is the first manned CSM/LM flight (this replaces AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E will be the higher CSM/LM Earth orbit flight; F will be the first month's mission, testing LM in lunar orbit but without landing ("rehearsal"); and G will be the first manned landing. List of types covered by moon exploration follow-up to include H lunar landing, I for the monthly orbital survey mission, and J for long-term landing month.
CSM delays caused by fire allowed NASA to pursue the LM human rankings and Saturn V. Apollo 4 (AS-501) was the first unmanned flight of Saturn V, carrying Block I CSM on November 9, 1967. The heat shield capability of the Command Module to survive life from trans-lunar reentry is demonstrated by using the Service Module engine to crash it into the atmosphere higher than the normal re-rotational speed of the orbital of the Earth.
Apollo 5 (AS-204) was the first unmanned test flight of LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by IB Saturn to be used for Apollo 1. The LM machine was successfully tested and restarted, despite programming errors computers that cut short the first stage of the descent shoot. The climbing machine is fired in an undo mode, known as the "fire in hole" test, where it is lit together with discarding the offspring. Although Grumman wants a second unmanned test, George Low decides the next LM flight will be taken care of.
This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) carrying CSM and the LM Test Articles as a weight. The purpose of this mission is to achieve a trans-lunar injection, followed by a direct cancel-cancel simulation, using the Service Module engine to achieve a high speed reentry speed. Saturn V undergoes pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-stable engine combustion, which damages fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines die prematurely, but the remaining machines are able to compensate. Damage to the third stage machine is more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. The mission controller can use the Service Module engine to essentially repeat Apollo flight profile 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo 6 and the identification of satisfactory improvements to Apollo 6 issues, NASA declared Saturn V ready to fly humans, canceling a third unmanned test.
The manned development mission
Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, is a C mission, dominated by Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham. This is an 11-day Earth orbital flight that tests the CSM system.
Apollo 8 is planned to be a D mission in December 1968, headed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on Saturn V instead of two Saturn IB. In summer it has become clear that LM will not be ready in time. Instead of wasting Saturn V on another simple mission that orbits the Earth, ASPO Manager George Low advised a bold move to send Apollo 8 into the orbit of the Moon instead, delaying mission D to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating mission E. It will keep the program keeps running. The Soviet Union has sent two turtles, mealworms, grape flies, and other living creatures around the Moon on September 15, 1968, above Zond 5, and it is believed they may soon repeat the feats with human cosmonauts. The decision was not publicly announced until the successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, and rookie William Anders caught the world's attention by making ten orbits of the moon in 20 hours, emitting television images from the lunar surface on Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth.
The following March, LM, rendezvous and docking flights were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo 9, and Schweickart tested a lunar EVA suit complete with Portable Life Support System (PLSS) outside LM. Mission F was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by veterans Gemini Thomas P. Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan. Stafford and Cernan carry LM into 50,000 feet (15 km) from the lunar surface.
Mission G was reached at Apollo 11 in July 1969 by the all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin made their first landing at the Sea of ​​Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes outside the outside plane the sky, walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and spreading automatic scientific instruments, while continuing to send black and white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24th.
It is a small step for a man, a great leap for mankind.
Landing production in months
In November 1969, veteran Gemini Charles "Pete" Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing at Apollo 12 within walking distance of the unmanned 3 month drill probe, which landed in April 1967 in Ocean of Storms. Pilot Module Command is a veteran of Gemini Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean brought the first lunar lunar color television camera, but it was broken when accidentally pointed to the Sun. They make two EVAs for 7 hours and 45 minutes. At one point, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some of the parts they had returned to Earth.
The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining mission to become a crew with a single veteran as Commander, with two beginners. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise in April 1970, to the formation of Fra Mauro. But two days later, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the Service Module and forcing the crew to use LM as the "life boat" to return to Earth. Other NASA review boards gathered to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of tank damage at the plant, and the subcontractors did not make tank components in accordance with updated design specifications. Apollo was revived, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and added an additional one.
The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs is sufficient for lunar landing missions via Apollo 20. NASA publishes a preliminary list of eight planned landing sites, with plans to increase the mass of CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the capacity of Saturn V. This last mission will combining types I and J in the 1967 list, allowing CMP to operate the moon's orbital sensor pack and camera when its friends are on the surface, allowing them to remain on the Moon for more than three days. These missions will also bring Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) to increase the exploration area and allow takeoff from LM. Also, the Block II spacecraft is revised for extended missions to allow for greater flexibility and visibility to drive LRV.
Missing mission
On the first landing time in 1969, it was decided to use the existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory previously built on the ground, replacing the original plan to make it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminates Apollo 20. NASA's annual budget also begins to shrink in view of a successful landing, and NASA must also provide funding for future Space Shuttle developments. In 1971, a decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19. Two unused Saturn Vs became a museum exhibit at John F. Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facilities in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.
The reduction forces mission planners to reassess the initial landing sites planned to achieve the most effective geological samples and data collection of the four remaining missions. Apollo 15 has been planned to be the last of the series H series, but since there will be only the next two missions left, it is transformed into the first of three J missions.
Apollo 13's mission Fra Mauro was transferred to Apollo 14, which was ordered in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell. This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface, completing two EVAs for 9 hours 24 minutes, which was the longest EVA record by the month's crew at the time.
In August 1971, just after the end of Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nixon proposed to cancel the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Deputy Director of Management and Budget Caspar Weinberger opposed this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions.
Extended mission
Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott, Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed on July 30 near Hadley Rille, and spent under two days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about 77 kilograms (170 pounds) of moon material.
Apollo 16 landed on the Descartes Highlands on April 20, 1972. The crew was ordered by John Young, with Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke. Young and Duke spend just under three days on the surface, for a total of over 20 hours of EVA.
Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landed in the Taurus-Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan ordered Ronald E. Evans and the first scientist of NASA-astronaut, geologist Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt. Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18, but the lunar geological community lobbied for inclusion in the final lunar landing. Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for more than three days and spent more than 23 hours total EVA.
Mission summary
Source: Apollo by Numbers: Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004).
Samples returned
The Apollo program restores more than 382 kg (842 lb) of moonstone and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. Today, 75% of samples are stored at the Lunar Sampling Laboratory Facility built in 1979.
The rocks collected from the Moon are very old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years to basaltic samples derived from maria moon, about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the upland crust. Thus, they represent a sample from a very early period in the development of the Solar System, which is largely absent from Earth. One important rock discovered during the Apollo Program was dubbed the Genesis Rock, taken by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission. This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively from calcium-rich anecite mineral feldspar, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust. The geochemical component called KREEP is found by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart. KREEP and anorthositic samples have been used to conclude that the outermost part of the Moon never really melts (see moon magma sea).
Almost all the stones show evidence of the effects of the effects process. Many of the samples appear to be pitted against micrometeoroid impact craters, which are never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to the high pressure shock waves generated during the impact event. Some of the samples returned are melt impact (melting material near the impact crater.) All return samples from the Moon are highly exposed as a result of various impact events.
The moon sample composition analysis supports the giant impact hypothesis, that the Moon was created through the impact of a large astronomical body with Earth.
Cost
When President Kennedy first chartered the landing program on the Moon, an initial cost estimate of $ 7 billion was generated, but this proved a very unrealistic assumption about what could not be precisely determined, and James Webb used his judgment as an administrator to convert estimates to $ 20 billion before giving it to Vice President Johnson.
When Kennedy made a 1962 speech at Rice University, the annual space budget was $ 5.4 billion, and he described this cost as 40 cents per person per week, "somewhat less than we pay for cigarettes and cigars every year" The moon will soon raise this to "more than 50 cents a week for every man, woman and child in the United States".
Webb's estimates surprised many people at the time (including the President) but eventually proved to be quite accurate. In January 1969, NASA prepared a detailed estimate of the cost of the Apollo program. The total is $ 23.9 billion, detailed as follows:
The final cost of Apollo was reported to Congress for $ 25.4 billion in 1973, It spent most of NASA's budget while it was being developed. For example, in 1966, it accounted for about 60 percent of NASA's total budget of $ 5.2 billion. It is one of the largest US investments in science, research, and development, and employs thousands of American scientists. One Saturn V launch in 1969 cost up to $ 375 million, compared to the $ 440 million National Science Foundation's fiscal year budget.
In 2009, NASA held a symposium on project costs presenting the estimated cost of the Apollo program in 2005 of about $ 170 billion ($ 206 billion in 2016 dollars). This includes all research and development costs; procurement of 15 Saturn V rockets, 16 Command/Service Modules, 12 Lunar Modules, plus programming and cost management support; construction costs for facilities and upgrades, and fees for flight operations. This is based on the Congressional Budget Office report, Budget Analysis of NASA's New Vision for Space, September 2004. The Space Review is estimated in 2010 Apollo's cost from 1959 to 1973 as $ 20.4 billion , or $ 109 billion in 2010 dollars. ($ 120 billion dollars 2016)
Apollo Application Program
Looking out of a manned moon landing, NASA is investigating some of the post-month apps for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X ,) proposes up to 30 flights into Earth orbit, using space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) into the small orbital lab home (workshop). Astronaut will continue to use CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by a larger orbital workshop design that would be built in orbit from the empty S-IVB stage, and developed into Apollo Application Program (AAP). The workshop will be equipped with Apollo Telescope Mount, which can be attached to the moon climbing module stage through the shelves. The most ambitious plan calls for using the empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a flying mission-by Venus.
The S-IVB orbital workshop is the only one of these plans to make it out of the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab, it was built complete on the ground rather than in space, and was launched in 1973 using two lower stages of Saturn V. It was equipped with Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew left the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979.
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project also uses Apollo hardware for the first joint space flight, paving the way for future cooperation with other countries in the Space Shuttle program and the International Space Station.
Recent observations
In September 2007, X PRIZE Foundation and Google announced the Google Lunar X Prize, which will be awarded for lunar robot landing missions that transmit close-up images of the Apollo Lunar Module and other artificial objects on the surface.
In 2008, SELENE's probe from Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency observed the halo evidence surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module explosion crater as it orbits above the lunar surface. In 2009, NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter NASA, while orbiting 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the Moon, began photographing the remains of Apollo's remaining program on the lunar surface, and photographing every site where the Apollo plane landed. All US flags remaining on the Moon during the Apollo mission were found still standing, with the only exception remaining during the Apollo 11 mission, which was destroyed during the mission that took off from the lunar surface and returned to the mission Command Module in a lunar orbit; the extent to which these flags retain their original color remains unknown.
Pada 16 November 2009, editorial, The New York Times berpendapat:
[T] This is something very sad about these photos from the Apollo landing site. The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong was walking there now, we could make it out, even step out of his tracks, like the astronaut pathway that is clearly visible in the photographs of the Apollo 14 site. Perhaps this deliberate was caused by a simple sense of splendor in the mission Apollo. Perhaps also, this is a reminder of the risks we all feel after Eagle landed - the possibility that it may not be lifted again and the astronauts will be stranded on the Moon. But maybe also a photo like this as close as we can look straight into the human past...
There the lunar module [Apollo 11] sits, parked exactly where he landed 40 years ago, as if it were still really 40 years ago and all the time since it was only a fantasy.
Legacy
Science and engineering
The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history. Apollo stimulates many areas of technology, leading to more than 1,800 spinoff products by 2015. Aviation computer designs used in both Lunar and Command Modules, along with Polaris and Minuteman missile systems, propelled forces behind initial research into integrated circuits ( IC). In 1963, Apollo used 60 percent of US IC production. An important difference between Apollo requirements and missile programs is the need for Apollo for much greater reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could overcome the reliability problem by deploying more missiles, the political and financial costs of the failure of the Apo mission
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