Stimulants (also commonly referred to as psychostimulant or colloquially as top ) is a comprehensive term that includes many drugs including drugs that increase central activity nervous and body systems, pleasant and refreshing medicines, or drugs that have sympathomimetic effects. Stimulants are widely used around the world as prescription drugs and also without prescription (both legally and illegally) as performance or recreational enhancers. The most commonly prescribed stimulants in 2013 are lisdexamfetamine, methylphenidate, and amphetamine. It is estimated that the percentage of the population who have abused the amphetamine type stimulants (eg, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, etc.) and the combined cocaine is between 0.8% and 2.1%.
Video Stimulant
Effects
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Stimulants in therapeutic doses, such as those given to patients with ADHD, improve the ability to focus, strength, sosiability, libido and can improve mood. However, in high-dose stimulants can actually decrease the ability to focus, the principle of the Law of Yerkes-Dodson. In high-dose stimulants it can also produce euphoria, strength, and reduce the need for sleep. Many, but not all, stimulants have an ergogenic effect. Drugs such as ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine and methylphenidate have well-documented ergogenic effects, while cocaine has the opposite effect. The effects of enhancing the neurocognitive stimulants, particularly modafinil, amphetamine and methylphenidate have been documented in healthy adolescents, and are a frequent reason cited among illegal drug users for use, especially among students in a learning context.
In some cases, psychiatric symptoms may arise such as stimulant psychosis, paranoia, and suicidal ideation. Acute toxicity has been reported to be associated with murder, paranoia, aggressive behavior, motor dysfunction, and punding. The violent and aggressive behavior associated with acute stimulant toxicity may be partially driven by paranoia. Most drugs classified as stimulants are sympathomimetic, that is, they stimulate the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. It causes effects such as midriasis, increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate and body temperature. When these changes become pathologic, they are called arrhythmia, hypertension, and hyperthermia, and can cause rhabdomyolysis, stroke, heart attack, or seizures. However, given the complexity of the mechanisms underlying the acute toxicity of this acute stimulant, it is not possible to determine what doses may be lethal.
Chronic
The assessment of stimulant effects is relevant given the large current population using stimulants. A systematic review of cardiovascular effects of prescription stimulants found no association in children, but found a correlation between the use of prescription stimulation and ischemic heart attack. The review over a four-year period found that there were some negative effects of stimulant treatment, but emphasized the need for long-term study. A long-term review of the use of prescription stimulants in those with ADHD found that cardiovascular side effects were limited to elevated blood pressure alone. The initiation of stimulation treatment in those with ADHD in early childhood seems to bring benefits into adulthood with regard to social and cognitive functioning, and seems relatively safe.
Misuse of prescription stimulants (not following doctor's instructions) or illicit stimulants carries many negative health risks. Cocaine abuse, depending on the route of administration, increases the risk of cardiorespiratory disease, stroke, and sepsis. Some effects depend on the route of administration, with intravenous use associated with the transmission of many diseases such as Hepatitis C, HIV/AIDS and potential medical emergencies such as infection, thrombosis or pseudoaneurysm, while inhalation may be associated with an increase in the lower respiratory tract. infection, lung cancer, and restrict pathological lung tissue. Cocaine can also increase the risk of autoimmune diseases and damage nasal cartilage. Methamphetamine abuse produces the same effect as well as marked dopaminergic neurone degradation, leading to an increased risk for Parkinson's disease.
Maps Stimulant
Medical use
Stimulants have been used in treatment for a variety of conditions including obesity, sleep disturbances, mood disorders, impulse control disorders, asthma, nasal congestion and as anesthesia. Drugs used to treat obesity are called anorectic and generally include drugs that follow the general definition of stimulants, but other drugs such as the CB1 receptor antagonist are in this class as well. Drugs used to treat sleep disorders such as excessive daytime sleepiness are called eugeroic and include important stimulants such as modafinil. Stimulants are used in impulse control disorders such as ADHD and off-label in mood disorders such as major depressive disorder to increase energy, focus and improve mood. Stimulants such as epinephrine, theophylline, and salbutamol orally have been used to treat asthma, but the inhaled adrenergic drug is now preferred because of less systemic side effects. Pseudoephedrine is used to relieve nasal or sinus congestion caused by common colds, sinusitis, fever and other respiratory allergies; it is also used to relieve nasal congestion caused by ear inflammation or infection.
Chemistry
Classifying stimulants is difficult, because of the large number of classes inhabited by drugs, and the fact that they may come from many classes; for example, ecstasy may be classified as substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamine, substituted amphetamines and as a consequence, phenethylamine replaced.
When referring to stimulants, the parent drug (eg, amphetamine ) will always be expressed in a single form; with the word "replaced" placed before the parent drug ( replaced amphetamine ).
The main stimulant classes include their daughter's class of phenethylamines and amphetamine substitution.
Amphetamine (class)
Substituted amphitamine is a class of compounds based on amphetamine structure; it includes all derived compounds formed by replacing, or replacing, one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with a substituent. Examples of substituted amphetamines are amphetamine (alone), methamphetamine, ephedrine, cathinone, phentermine, mephentermine, bupropion, methoxyphenamine, selegiline, amfepramone, pyrovalerone, MDMA (ecstasy), and DOM (STP). Many drugs in this class work primarily by activating the trace of the amine-1 receptor (TAAR1); in turn, this causes reuptake inhibition and depletion, or release, of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The additional mechanism of some substituted amphetamines is the release of vesicular storage of monoamine neurotransmitters through VMAT2, thereby increasing the concentration of these neurotransmitters in the cytosol, or intracellular fluid, of the presinaptic neurone.
Stimulant types of amphetamines are often used for their therapeutic effects. Doctors sometimes prescribe amphetamines to treat severe depression, in which the subjects do not respond well to traditional SSRI medications, but evidence supporting this use is poor/mixed. In particular, two recent large phase III studies of lisdexamfetamine (prodrug for amphetamines) in addition to SSRIs or SNRIs in the treatment of major depressive disorder showed no further benefit relative to placebo in effectiveness. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of drugs such as Adderall (a mixture of amphetamine salts and dextroamphetamine) in controlling symptoms associated with ADHD. Due to its availability and fast acting effects, amphetamine replacement is a prime candidate for abuse.
Analog cocaine
Hundreds of cocaine analogues have been created, all of which usually retain benzyloxy that is connected to 3 carbon from a tropan. Various modifications include substitution of the benzene ring, as well as addition or substitution in place of normal carboxylates in trophic carbon 2. Various compounds with structural activity relationships similar to those of non-analog cocaine have been technically developed as well.
Action mechanism
Stimulants can have multiple mechanisms. Many stimulants use their effects through the manipulation of monoamine neurotransmission. Monoamines are a class of neurotransmitters that are relevant in appreciation, motivation, temperature regulation and pain sensations that include dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Stimulants usually block reuptake or stimulate dopamine and norepinephrine eflux, thus increasing their circuit activity. Some stimulants, especially those with a fouricogenic and hallucinogenic effect alter serotonergic neurotransmission. Interference with vesicular storage, activating TAAR1, and reversing the flow of monoamine transporters can play a mechanism in the activity of these drugs. Adrenergic stimulants, such as ephedrine, can act by binding directly and activating receptors that norepinephrine and epinephrine usually bind (adrenergic receptors), producing sympathomimetic effects. Some drugs, such as MDMA and derivatives, may decrease regulatory capacity by opposing receptor auto-synaptic receptors. Caffeine is an important exception, because it exerts its effects by antagonizing adenosine receptors rather than acting directly on monoamines.
Essential stimuli
Amphetamine
Amphetamine is a powerful central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of phenethylamine classes approved for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. Amphetamines refers to the same portion of the enantiomer, ie 50% levoamphetamine and 50% dextroamphetamine. Amphetamine is also used as a performance and cognitive enhancer, and recreation as an aphrodisiac and euphoria. Although it is a prescription drug in many countries, unauthorized ownership and distribution of amphetamines are often tightly controlled because of significant health risks associated with uncontrolled or severe use. As a result, amphetamines are illegally synthesized by clandestine chemists, traded, and sold. Based on drug attacks and precursor drugs worldwide, the production of prohibited amphetamines and human trafficking is much less than methamphetamine.
The first pharmaceutical amphetamine is Benzedrine, a type of inhaler used to treat various conditions. Since dextro isomers have greater stimulant properties, Benzedrine is gradually discontinued in favor of formulations containing all or most of dextroamphetamine. Currently, it is usually prescribed as Adderall, dextroamphetamine (eg, Dexedrine ), or an inactive lisdexamfetamine prodrug (eg, Vyvanse ). Amphetamine, through the activation of trace amine receptors, increases the activity of biogenic amines and excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain, with the most prominent effect that targets neepotransmitters norepinephrine and norepinephrine. In therapeutic doses, this causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, libido changes, increased arousal, and increased cognitive control. Likewise, it induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength.
In contrast, larger doses of amphetamine tend to impair cognitive function and cause rapid muscle damage. Substance dependence (ie, addiction) is a serious risk of amphetamine abuse, but rarely arises from proper medical use. Very high doses can cause psychosis (eg, delusions and paranoia), which are very rare in therapeutic doses even during long-term use. Since recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses, recreational use carries a much greater risk of serious side effects.
Caffeine
Caffeine is a compound stimulant belonging to the xanthine class of chemicals naturally found in coffee, tea, and (to a lesser extent) cocoa or chocolate. It is included in many soft drinks, as well as a larger amount in energy drinks. Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world and is by far the most common stimulant. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine every day. Some jurisdictions limit sales and use. Caffeine is also included in some medications, usually for the purpose of increasing the effect of the main ingredient, or reducing one of its side effects (especially drowsiness). Tablets containing standard caffeine doses are also widely available.
The mechanism of action of caffeine differs from many stimulants, because it produces a stimulant effect by inhibiting the adenosine receptor. Adenosine receptors are thought to be great sleep and sleep movers, and their action increases with increased consciousness. Caffeine has been found to increase striatal dopamine in animal models, as well as inhibit the inhibitory effects of adenosine receptors on dopamine receptors, but the implications for humans are unknown. Unlike most stimulants, caffeine has no potential for addiction. Caffeine does not seem to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of reluctance actually occurs, which people prefer a placebo over caffeine in the study of drug abuse obligations published in the NIDA research monograph. In a major phone survey only 11% reported symptoms of dependence. However, when people are tested in the laboratory, only half of those who claim dependence actually experience it, raises doubts on the ability of caffeine to generate dependence and put social pressure in the spotlight.
Coffee consumption is associated with lower overall cancer risk. This is primarily due to a reduced risk of hepatocellular and endometrial cancer, but may also have a modest effect on colorectal cancer. There appears to be no significant protective effect against other types of cancer, and heavy coffee consumption may increase the risk of bladder cancer. The protective effect of caffeine on Alzheimer's disease is possible, but the evidence can not be inferred. Moderate consumption of coffee may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, and may slightly reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. Drinking four or more cups of coffee per day does not affect the risk of hypertension compared to drinking little or no coffee. However, those who drank one to three cups per day may be at increased risk. Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals. It can protect people from cirrhosis of the liver. There is no evidence that coffee inhibits a child's growth. Caffeine can increase the effectiveness of some medications including those used to treat headaches. Caffeine can reduce the severity of acute mountain diseases if taken several hours before reaching high altitudes.
Ephedrine
Ephedrine is a similar sympathomimetic amine in molecular structure with a well known phenylpropanolamine and methamphetamine drug, and an important epinephrine neurotransmitter (adrenaline). Ephedrine is commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, and decongestants, and to treat hypotension associated with anesthesia.
In chemical terms, it is an alkaloid with a framework of phenethylamine found in various plants in the genus Ephedra (Ephedraceae family). It works primarily by increasing the activity of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) in adrenergic receptors. Usually marketed as salt hydrochloride or sulfate .
Ephedra sinica spice, used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), contains ephedrine and pseudoephedrine as its main active constituent. The same may apply to other herbal products containing extracts from other Ephedra species.
MDMA
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, extstasy, or molly) is an euphoriant, fourhogen, and stimulant of the amphetamine class. Briefly used by some psychotherapists in addition to therapy, the drug becomes popular recreationally and MDA is listed as a substance regulated by Schedule I, prohibiting most studies and medical applications. MDMA is known for its entactogenic properties. The effects of MDMA stimulants include hypertension, anorexia (loss of appetite), euphoria, social disinhibition, insomnia (increased awareness/inability to sleep), increased energy, increased arousal, and increased perspiration, among others. MDMA differs from most stimulants because its main pharmacological effect is on serotonin neurotransmitters rather than dopamine, or norepinephrine. MDMA does not seem to cause significant dependence or dependency.
Due to the relative security of MDMA, some researchers like David Nutt have criticized the scheduling rate, writing a satirical article that found MDMA to be 28 times more dangerous than riding a horse, a condition he calls "equasy" or "Equine Addiction Syndrome."
MDPV
Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is a psychoactive drug with stimulant properties that act as a norepinephrine-dopamine (NDRI) reuptake inhibitor. It was first developed in 1960 by a team at Boehringer Ingelheim. MDPV remained a vague stimulus until about 2004, when it was reportedly sold as a designer drug. Products labeled as bath salts containing MDPV were previously sold as recreational drugs at gas stations and department stores in the United States, similar to the marketing of Spice and K2 as incense.
The incidence of psychological and physical hazards has been linked to the use of MDPV.
Mephedrone
Mephedrone is a class of amphetamine and cathinone synthetic stimulants. Slang names include drones and MCAT. It is reported to be produced in China and is chemically similar to the cathinone compounds found in the khat factory in eastern Africa. It comes in the form of tablets or powders, which the user can swallow, grunt, or inject, producing an effect similar to MDMA, amphetamine, and cocaine.
Mephedrone was first synthesized in 1929, but it was not widely known until it was rediscovered in 2003. In 2007, mephedrone was reportedly available for sale on the Internet; In 2008, law enforcement agencies have become aware of this complex; and, in 2010, has been reported in most of Europe, becoming very prevalent in the United Kingdom. Mephedrone was first made illegal in Israel in 2008, followed by Sweden later that year. In 2010, it was made illegal in many European countries, and, in December 2010, the EU decided it was illegal. In Australia, New Zealand, and the United States, it is considered analogous to other illegal drugs and can be controlled by laws similar to the Federal Analog Act. In September 2011, the US temporarily classified the mephedrone as illegal, which took effect from October 2011.
Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine (contracted from N - meth yl- a lpha- m ethyl ph en et hyl amines ) is a powerful neurotoxin and psychostimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine classes used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity. Methamphetamine exists as two enantiomers, dextrorotary and levorotary. Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger CNS stimulant than levomethamphetamine; but both are addictive and produce the same toxicity symptoms at high doses. Although rarely prescribed because of potential risks, methamphetamine hydrochloride is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) under the trade name Desoxyn . Recreational, methamphetamine is used to increase sexual desire, improve mood, and increase energy, allowing multiple users to engage in continuous sexual activity for several days in a row.
Methamphetamine can be sold for dark, either as pure dextromethamphetamine or in the same mixture of right and left hand molecules (ie, 50% levomethamphetamine and 50% dextromethamphetamine). Both dextromethamphetamine and racemic methamphetamine are controlled substance II schedules in the United States. Also, the production, distribution, sale and ownership of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many other countries because of its placement in Schedule II of the United Nations Convention on the Agreement of Psychotropic Substances. In contrast, levomethamphetamine is an over-the-counter drug in the United States.
In low doses, methamphetamine can lead to increased mood and increase alertness, concentration, and energy in tired individuals. At higher doses, it can induce psychosis, rhabdomyolysis, and cerebral hemorrhage. Methamphetamine is known to have high potential for abuse and addiction. The use of recreational methamphetamine may lead to psychosis or lead to post-withdrawal syndrome, a withdrawal syndrome that can last for months after a typical withdrawal period. Unlike amphetamines and cocaine, methamphetamine is neurotoxic in humans, damaging dopamine and serotonin neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). Fully contrary to the long-term use of amphetamines, there is evidence that methamphetamine causes brain damage from long-term use in humans; this damage includes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as a gray matter volume reduction in some brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity.
Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate is a stimulant drug often used in the treatment of ADHD and narcolepsy and sometimes to treat obesity in combination with diet and exercise restrictions. Its effects on therapeutic doses include increased focus, increased alertness, decreased appetite, decreased need for sleep and decreased impulsivity. Methylphenidate is usually not used recreatively, but when used, the effect is very similar to amphetamine.
Methylphenidate acts a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor, by blocking norepinephrine (NET) transporters and dopamine (DAT) transporters. Methylphenidate has a higher affinity for dopamine transporters than norepinephrine transporters, and consequently is mainly due to increased levels of dopamine caused by inhibited dopamine reuptake, but increased norepinephrine levels also contribute to various drug-induced effects.
Methylphenidate is sold in various forms, the most common trade name is oral tablet Ritalin . Other versions include durable tablets Concerta and long Daytrana transdermal patches. Cocaine
Cocaine is SNDRI. Cocaine is made from coca bush leaves, which grow in mountainous regions of South American countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. In Europe, North America, and parts of Asia, the most common form of cocaine is white crystalline powder. Cocaine is a stimulant but is usually not prescribed therapeutically for its stimulant properties, although it sees clinical use as a local anesthetic, particularly in ophthalmology. Most cocaine use is recreational and the potential for abuse is high (higher than amphetamine), so sales and ownership are strictly controlled in most jurisdictions. Other tropan derivative drugs associated with cocaine are also known as troparil and lometopane but have not been widely sold or used in recreation.
Nicotine
Nicotine is an active chemical constituent in tobacco, which is available in various forms, including cigarettes, cigars, chewing tobacco, and quit smoking such as nicotine, nicotine gum, and electronic cigarettes. Nicotine is widely used worldwide for its stimulating and soothing effects. Nicotine has its effect through nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists, producing some downstream effects such as increased activity of dopaminergic neurons in the central brain reward system, as well as decreased expression of monoamine oxidase in the brain. Nicotine causes dependence and dependence. The most common source of nicotine, tobacco, overall damage to users and self-scores determined by multi-criteria decision analysis is determined at 3 percent under cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamine, ranked the 6th most dangerous of 20 medications assessed.
Phenylpropanolamine
Phenylpropanolamine (PPA; Accutrim; -hydroxyamphetamine), also known as norephedrine and norpseudoephedrine stereoisomers, is a psychoactive drug from the chemical class of phenethylamine and amphetamines used as stimulant, decongestant, and anorectic agents. It is commonly used in prescription and over-the-counter cough and cold medicines. In veterinary medicine, it is used to control urine incontinence in dogs under the trademark Propalin and Proin.
In the United States, PPA is no longer sold without a prescription because of the increased risk of stroke in younger women. In some countries in Europe, however, it is still available either by prescription or sometimes over-the-counter. In Canada, withdrawn from the market on May 31, 2001. In India, human use of PPA and its formulation is prohibited on 10 February 2011.
Propylhexedrine
Propylhexedrine (Hexahydromethamphetamine, Obesin) is a stimulant drug, sold freely in the United States as a cold cure Benzedrex. This drug has also been used as an appetite suppressant in Europe. Propylhexedrine is not amphetamine, although it is structurally similar; it is not cycloalkylamine, and thus has a less potent stimulant effect than the same structured amphetamines, such as methamphetamine.
The potential for propylhexedrine misuse is quite limited, because of its limited administrative path: in the United States, Benzedrex is only available as inhalants, mixed with lavender and menthol oil. These ingredients cause discomfort, and drug abusers report "unpleasant burping menthol." Drug injections have been found to cause temporary diplopia and brainstem dysfunction.
Pseudoephedrine
Pseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug of the chemical class of phenethylamine and amphetamine. It can be used as a nasal/sinus decongestant, as a stimulant, or as an awareness-raising agent.
Pseudoephedrine hydrochloride salts and pseudoephedrine sulfate are found in many free-sold prescriptions either as a single or (more common) ingredient in combination with antihistamines, guaifenesin, dextromethorphan, and/or paracetamol (acetaminophen) or other NSAIDs (eg aspirin or ibuprofen). It is also used as a precursor chemical in the production of illegal methamphetamine.
Catha edulis (Khat)
Khat is a native flowering plant to the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.
Khat contains a monoamine alkaloid called cathinone, a "keto-amphetamine", which is said to cause joy, loss of appetite, and euphoria. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified it as a drug of abuse that could produce mild to moderate psychological dependence (less than tobacco or alcohol), although WHO did not consider it a serious addiction. These are controlled substances in several countries, such as the United States, Canada and Germany, while production, sales and consumption are legal in other countries, including Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia and Yemen.
Abuse
Abuse of central nervous system stimulation (CNS) is common. Addiction to some CNS stimulants can quickly cause medical, psychiatric, and psychosocial damage. Tolerance, dependability, and drug sensitivity and withdrawal syndrome may occur.
Stimulants increase the activity of the central and peripheral nervous system. Common effects may include increased alertness, awareness, awareness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, passion, drive, heart rate, and blood pressure, and reduced desire for food and sleep.
The use of stimulants can cause the body to significantly reduce the production of natural chemicals that fulfill similar functions. Until the body rebuilds its normal state, once the effects of digestible stimulants have faded from the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and miserable. This is called a "crash", and can trigger the reuse of stimulants.
Stimulants can be screened for animal discrimination and self-administration models that have high sensitivity despite low specificity. Research on progressive ratios The self-administered protocols have found amphetamines, methylphenidate, modafinil, cocaine, and nicotine for all to have resting points higher than placebo at scale with doses indicating a reinforcing effect.
Test
The presence of stimulants in the body can be tested by various procedures. Serum and urine are common sources of test materials although saliva is sometimes used. Commonly used tests include chromatography, immunological testing, and mass spectrometry.
See also
- Antipsychotics
- Depression
- Hallucinogens
- Nootropics
- Psychoanaleptics
Note
References
External links
- Media related to Stimulants on Wikimedia Commons
- "Long Island Council on Alcohol & Drug Addiction - About Drugs - Stimulants". Archived from original June 5, 2008 . Retrieved 4 August 2007 . Ã, CS1 maint: URL does not match (link)
- "Online - Publications - Drug Abuse - Stimulants". Archived from the original on September 22, 2006 . Retrieved January 11 2008 . Ã, CS1 maint: Ineligible URL (link)
- Asia & amp; Pacific Amphetamine Stimulation Information Center (APAIC)
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